Ancient History - Part 42: Hail To The King

After defeating Hanigalbat and her Mitanni, Shubbiluliuma returned to Syria with his soldiers to attack the last holdout, Aleppo, whose level of national will kept the prince's city independent up until that point. But Shubbiluliuma's army had grown so large compared to his early raids upon Syria, that this time, they'd little opposition and marched right into the heart of the city. Whether by means of migration or war, the nations of the Near East has a history of knowing no borders, nor the concept of freedom for other peoples.

With both rivals (Egypt & Hanigalbat) removed, Shubbiluliuma continued to conquer and impose his imperial rule over Syria in many steps:

1. Kingdom of Niy: A largely Semitic population bordering southern Hanigalbat, a regional prince, Shutatarra, refused Shubbiluliuma's offer to show allegiance. Thus, the son, Aitakkama, killed his father (much in the same manner as the Mitanni king was slain by his own) and became a loyal agent to the Hattic king. Aitakkama actually led the attacks for Shubbiluliuma upon the Mitanni, with many successful raids persisting against Tushratta's successor.
2. Tunip: A once Egyptian territory was taken by the Hittites, and the labors of the farms and fisheries spread to the benefit of the Hattic kingdom. Decadence and fear had spread across Egypt, weaknesses Shubbiluliuma sensed and correctly predicted no significant retaliation.
3. Province of Kilis: The regional prince, Sharrupshi, remained loyal to his Egyptian suzerain, but that all changed once Aleppo fell. Just neighboring Aleppo at the northwest, rather than repeat the cycle of violent sieges for his cities to endure, he'd signed a treaty, bowing down his region to the Hattic king.
4. Lebanon: This wealthy swath of land's Egyptian/Mitannian overlords had abandoned this region and rather than taste freedom, the Semitic peoples traded one familiar group of overlords for unfamiliar new group.

The Hattic king effectively disseminated the elite feudal-style ruling system that Egypt had set-up over Palestine, Lebanon, and Syria and quickly replaced the old with the new, inserting their own people as the ones bearing the whip. Whilst not making it as far as Palestine (still under Egyptian control) Shubbiluliuma still pushed against against defenses for as long as he could.

[SIGNED TREATY - Between Sharrupshi and Shubbiluliuma]

Ancient History - Part 41: The Two Betrayals

King Tushratta of the Mitanni was no easy opponent, winning a great many of the initial engagements against the invading Hattic forces. For the entirety of his reign, Tushratta and his people were staunch loyalists to the Egyptian crown, and he reasoned that if his kingdom could demonstrate vigilance in the face of those who sought to destroy them, the Kingdom of Nile would surely embolster his defending nation.

Egypt, as we know however, was on the decline, and did anything but reinforce her Mitannian allies. Not only did the ill-prepared Egyptian forces fail to assist the Mitanni, but retreated from their occupied Syria soils at the first sightings of the Hattic enemy. Thus, despite winning on the field, king Tushratta ordered a tactical retreat back to his seat within Washukanni, the capital city of Hanigalbat that sat on the embankments of the Euphrates.

The king of the Mitanni dispelled any false notions of Egyptian rescue, for many months hearing from a distance how the Hattic army ravaged his land. Upon a brief deliberation, Tushratta recognized that his communication with Egypt was cutoff entirely, and was forced to consider suing for peace with Shubbiluliuma, rather than risk further annihilation. But the proud king was not to be swayed, this was a violation of property that he refused to throw out due to fear.

But the growing sentimentalities amongst his followers had morphed into dissension, and whilst his fighting spirit was undoubtedly hinged on the shoulders of honor and duty, a rebellious new faction was formed. This very faction, led by his own son Artatami II, betrayed the king, and the son violently slayed the father within his own palace walls, by way of razor, thus usurping the throne.

Hanigalbat then submitted to king Shubbiluliuma as overlord and by the time Tushratta's successor, Mattiuaza, assumed the throne, his entire kingdom was overrun by the Hittites of the west followed by the Assyrians of the east.

What strong leaders sometimes fail to recognize is that the the standard to which they hold themselves to does not necessarily apply to others. Tushratta reasoned that together with Egypt, they would expel the Hattic enemy, completely blind to the possibility of Egypt acting in cowardice. His capital stronghold being situated on an everflowing river, where he fortified knowing Washukanni impenetrable, could outlast the invasion. And yet his treacherous supporters and family murdered him.

History would have played out so very differently had only Tushratta simply continued to fight and trusted no one, holding true to the abilities of his own leadership and desire for his nation to remain independent.

[METHOD OF COMMUNICATION BETWEEN HANIGALBAT AND EGYPT (Amarna Letter, above)]

Ancient History - Part 40: The Banners Are Raised

While his intention may have been only to conquer and control northern Syria, Shubbiluliuma found himself in a rare strategic position. This new territory allowed access to even greater parts beyond the Euphrates to the east. And so, he consulted with the relocated Harri, of whose new land he'd now broach to cross, and these riverfolk banded together to join the favored king in battle as brothers once more.

For their participation, the levies against the Harri had been lifted, and the enlarged army crossed the Euphrates and into the lands of the Mitanni in a grand scale attack, first entering and overtaking Ishuwa, a prized area previously eyed by his predecessor, Hattushil. But the Hattic army did not stop there, moving next into Alshe, the adjacent province, and soon threatened encroachment upon the heart of the Mitanni kingdom.

King Tushratta of the Mitanni, tied directly to the Egyptian throne by marriage (brother-in-law to Amenhotep III) raised his banners and set to meet Shubbiluliuma's invaders in the field. In response, the king of Carchemish (unnamed thus far by historic record) of Syria, joined his forces to the invading Shubbiluliuma's, gaining favor above his fellow princes. Records do show however that Carchemish in the many years to follow would have direct Hittite bloodlines, hinting that this Syrian city-state did indeed become the favored nation amongst the Hattic king's new allies.

Reenforced by both auxiliary armies of the Harri and now the soldiers of Carchemish, the inevitable drumbeat began to sound as the Hattic forces neared their first massive battle with the Mitanni, led by Tushratta. The call by the defending forces' king beckoned that every last man must ride or die, their freedoms to perish along with any resulting failure. Their security threatened, both proud leaders set their sights upon the dawn in a prelude of their inevitable confrontation.

[IMPERIAL SEAL OF THE MITANNI]

Ancient History - Part 39: War and Peace

[A united Hattic Kingdom under Shubbiluliuma]

Shubbiluliuma removed the Harri people from Kissuwadna, confining them to the other side of the Euphrates, where they adopted the lifestyle of riverfolk. In the days that followed, the Hattic king's favorable treatment earned their obedience. The fatal mistakes that monarch-kings often make tend to be leaving problems unsolved, ones that continue to fester, and Shubbiluliuma's handling of Harri in a way that did not result in mass genocide or civil war was something the world took note of.

Next, he traveled to Syria to treat with the princes who ruled from their impressively rich city-states. This entire area bore spheres of influence that included princes aligned with the Mitanni and others with Egypt. In the case of the Mitanni, the Syrian princes were offered protection; with Egypt, innovation; but in the case of Hatta? War.

Shubbiluliuma did not enter Syria with peaceful intentions and carried the near full force of his armies into their lands. The Hattic king wisely chose to leave his internal struggles almost bloodless, but the opposite was true for the external challenge of staking a claim in Syria to form a new dynasty under his one rule. This move was unprecedented and a brutal one, taking Syria itself, along with its new allies in the Egyptians and Mitanni, completely unawares.

It is a fool's bargain to believe in others blindly fighting your battles for you upon nothing more than their word, and when the Hattic soldiers began their raids, Egypt and Mitanni occupied areas also fell to Shubbiluliuma's grasp. The local chieftains quickly submitted and before the Near End knew it, the Hattic nation now possessed all of northern Syria. King Shubbiluliuma's people remembered the old days written and told via oral tradition of the fierceness of the Assyria, and establishing this foothold in upper Syria was considered an effective posture against any notion of western expansion.

Just as one country might absorb another in order to create a buffer of sorts, this was the will of Shubbiluliuma's people, however, his own two reasons were entirely different.

Legacy and power.

[THE DEEDS OF SHUBBILULIUMA]

Ancient History - Part 38: Strength, Honor, and Respect

Shubbiluliuma came to the Hattic throne at 1400 B.C. and immediately sought to solve the longlasting problems which plagued his predecessor. He traveled by horse with his military into Cappadocia, fully restoring Hatti to its unquestionable seat of power. Admittedly, Hattushil faced an uphill battle with the set of challenges that plagued the latter part of his reign, but Shubbiluliuma displayed a level of strength in leadership that people could not help but find contagious.

With the hub of Cappadocia supporting his cause the young king next sought to resolve the Harrian Problem. A rival power that had opposed Hattushil congregated and took over the area of Kissuwadna. The initial clashes were bloody, but soon the local populace gave way to reason, and submitted to the greater power of the Hittite king's might. Kissuwadna and its people were not given a free pass, far from it, and the price for their revolt included increased taxes and the removal of their favored leaders from government.

And finally, the Tauric provincialities were beginning to develop sympathies with outside Hattan rivals, particularly Egypt and Assyria, whose traveling citizenry had now transformed into moderate migration. The prince who ruled one particular region, the westernmost of these states, Arzawa, preceded over what had effectively turned into an Egyptian proxy state. Knowing that if this potential issue was to exist as it stood, painful implications would threaten the remainder of the Hittite states, as the war-like Assyrians, in theory, might develop their own proxy state and as neighbors spelt out nothing less than death and destruction.

Arzawa was notable for having correspondence with Egypt, but the great king Shubbiluliuma did not let this dissuade him from what he needed to do. He fought and defeated the Arzawa state, fully absorbing it into Hattic power, expelling any foreigner, particularly those belonging to any nomadic tribe harboring semi-hostile sensibilities. And once all of this was accomplished, a message was sent to Egypt and Assyria where the boundaries lie and the internal issue with the Harri people also vanished simultaneously as Shubbiluliuma's Hittite kingdom kicked off the next millennia.

The overwhelming confidence by which certain leaders exude often rings peculiar to the eyes and ears of people looking to the past. But it stands so powerfully within the region of Asia Minor during this time of antiquity that might was often right, strength and power was respected, and he who made the least mistakes was welcomed as the greatest leader of men. It may be difficult for modern eyes to understand but this simple lesson puts on display that this was a time and place where the difference between a strong king and a weak king meant life or death, feast or famine, freedom or subjugation. 

And the Hittites rightfully and proudly decided: Shubbiluliuma was to be their strong king.

[An example of Arzawa stone art-relief of one of their local kings]

Ancient History - Part 37: Hittite Imperial Power

[EMPIRES OF 1300 B.C. (BY COLOR) - HITTITE; EGYPTIAN; ASSYRIAN-BABYLONIAN; MYCENAEAN]

Moving backwards and with an introspective eye on the former Hittite empire:

The Hittite civilization dwelled primarily in eastern Turkey (specifically, Anatolia), northern Syria, expanding throughout the 15th to 13th centuries to the Euphrates and the Mycenaean coastal waters. The power of the Hattic capital stood within Cappadocia.

It was from this power center around 1450 B.C. that king Dudkhalia established correspondence with the surrounding powers. These included but were not limited to Hanigalbat and Aleppo. Impressed by the Hittite king's shrewd attitude along with a willingness to share in the wealth that his friendship might suggest, Dudkhalia united a region known for its warworn history without ever firing a single arrow.

Upon Dudkhalia's passing, the throne went to Hattushil, a man who clashed for control against an opposing faction within the Hattic lands. This faction, ethnically Harrian, were supported by both northern Syrian people as well as the native riverfolk of the Euphrates. While the historic details might be described by some as sketchy at best, the following generations were predominently Hattic in nature, ushering in the imperial period of the Hittite empire, and thus signifying Hattushil's victory amid this struggle.

The last bastion of hope for the opposing Harrian leadership was towards the end of Hattushil's reign (1415), which saw a revival of sorts rebel against the Hattic king. At the far south, within a place called Kissuwadna, the Harrians rallied the surrounding southern lands in revolution. Simultaneously, Assyria's soldiery began to encroach from across the Euphrates and into Tauric territory (Crimean migrant lands) from the east. This started a fifteen year trajectory of growing opposition for Hattushil's successor, his son, and most famous of the Hittite kingly line, Shubbiluliuma.

All empires crumble sooner or later, finger pointing aside, the same pattern remains ever prevalent to this day. But the beauty and awe of an empire at its peak is still something for a historian to behold. Hattusa, Hittite, Hatti, Hattic, Hatta, Hattan... These are all variations describing a people who existed a long time ago primarily in what we now consider the country of Turkey who had many kings of impressive measure, though more than a few who suffered significant missteps in focal decision-making. Our retrospective on the Hittites and the rise and fall of their kingdom begins henceforth.

[HITTITE METALWORK]

Ancient History - Part 36: The Lesser of Two Men

[KING MARDUK-NADIN-AKHE OF BABYLONIA]

The time for peace expired by the end of Tiglath-pileser's reign as the despot of the Orient waged battle with the king of Babylonia, Marduk-nadin-akhe (1116-1101).

If a word could be said about Marduk-nadin-akhe it might be "bold", as the king order a raid upon Assyria in the year 1107 B.C, where his soldiers murdered and stole two major religious artifacts, the statues of the Assyria gods Shala and Adad. The greater crime was not the slaying of the citizens within close proximity to the statues, but rather the grave offense to their religious customs that brought the two nations to war.

At first there were a series of excursions leading the armies to clash in small skirmishes. This was a way for both sides to gauge the other side's mettle. However, it was the most heavily documented and largest of the early battles that bore significant results.

Both armies met for a full-scale collision at Lower Zab, stomping grounds the Assyrians had become extremely familiar. It was at this battle site that they routed the Babylonian forces, sending a large remainder in retreat, as they reclaimed the mountain territory and regrouped. The time for a subsequent battle yielded even more definitive results as the old king of Assyria fought the encroaching army near his own city of Akkad (specifically, Upper Akkad).

Tiglath-pileser not only defeated king Marduk-nadin-akhe's army, destroying every unit to the last man, but in retaliation, counter-attacked, launching a full-scale invasion upon Babylonia, who without a standing army, could no longer defend herself. First Dur-Kurigalzu fell, before Babylon and Opis soon followed. More towns and smaller cities were plundered and the Assyrian king had one final day of celebration to end his legendary time of rule.

The massive strategic error of Marduk-nadin-akhe's decision in attacking Assyria is the reminder that weaker men tend to pose within the shadows of truly great leaders. It's a pattern that usually sees the pettier of two rulers to act out as a bratty child might against their elder, leading to a violent confrontation, ultimately dooming the lesser individual's very subjects. They alone bear the price of their king's petulance and the king of Babylonia in this case highlights such a historic example.

[DUR-KURIGALZU]