Ancient History - Part 49: The Lion In The Room

Surprisingly, Carchemish was left off the Treaty of Kadesh. This has to led to some speculation that either a non-Hittite entity (such as Assyria) had absorbed the city during the negotiations between Hatta and Egypt, or more likely, Carchemish had already become a recognized part of king Hattushil's home capital, thereby needing no such formally written recognition in the agreement.

During this period, Shalmaneser I, the king of Assyria, had reached the Middle Euphrates, with his armies frequently setting raids from across the water. The target of these raids primarily included Hatta's ally, the Mitanni, who sustained the brunt of these attacks, and included their capital, Hanigalbat. Thusly, it is not unreasonable to put Assyrian occupation of Carchemish outside the realm of possibility here.

Whilst previously Egypt was frantic to accept swift Hattic friendship due to pressure from their alliance with Babylonia, it was soon the Hittite people's turn to ask the same of their former enemy. As westward expansion by Assyria encroached upon their lands, Hattushil drew upon letters to Babylonia and Egypt both, reporting aggressive movements of this powerful new threat. However, as we know, not much was done in the manner to curb the Hattic king's worry.

Even still, thirteen years after signing the Treaty of Kadesh, Hattushil concentrated on fulfilling strategic maneuvers to strengthen the bonds with his allies, and began by marrying one of his daughters to Egypt's pharaoh, Ramses, who would join his Royal Harem. The correspondence at this junction actually included Hattushil's queen, Pudukhipa, directly addressing matters concerning her daughter and the Egyptian lifestyle, and also Ramses asked for large supplies of smelted iron from his new kingly friend.

Generally speaking, it is very difficult to create a reasonably sized conglomerate of allied nations to defend against the level of danger that the war-hungry Assyrian army posed to the rest of the Near East. Egypt and Babylonia did not appear to treat this threat with the same manner of heightened care that Hatta did, and instead demonstrated clumsy foresight by the hands of Babylonia's king, and an agnostic interest at best on behalf of Egypt's, due to distance.

It's a reasonable basis in hindsight that the Hittites and their king were correct in fearing Assyrian expansion, but unfortunately their voices were drowned out in a sea of disinterest, a price all players with the exception of perhaps Elam, in the far east, would later pay at a supreme cost.

[KING HATTUSHIL II]

Ancient History - Part 48: The Trouble With Peace

[HITTITE VERSION OF PEACE TREATY]

The context in which the treaty between Egypt and Hatta was formed is a matter of great significance. Whilst the Hattic king lowered his tone to a level of warmth in regards to a peaceful effort of mutual partnership, be it border-defenses or curbing the migratory shifting of adjacent populations, Hattushil still dictated his kingdom's needs with a firm hand, particularly in the matters of territorial dispute. And so the first drafting of this peace treaty was composed from the Hatta camp, not Ramses's.

The finely carved letter of cuneiform arrived by horseback upon a silver platter once presented to the pharaoh. Ramses counter-drafted with overtures of his own, agreeing to Hatta's ownership of four-fifths of Syria, listing the specific towns and provinces included, and etched the compromise in metal before sending it back.

In the end, both parties agreed that the other's border would be rendered immune from invasion by the opposing side, with many Egyptian deities quoted by Ramses's scribesmen as honoring the agreement with their divine eyes. Hattushil in turn gave ceremony in the traditional Hattic religious custom (public temple prayer and demonstrations of stately worship amongst both soldiery and citizen alike) before returning to Ramses's draft with an addendum.

Hatta recognized Egypt's sole province in the Near East as Palestine and only Palestine. The entirety of lands within Syria's borders would endure Hatta's dominion. Each of Syria's princes were consigned as traveling witnesses to these discussions, pawns and figure-heads who gladhanded with their overlord and former overlord alike, and in the end, fully accepted Hattushil's and his successors' leadership in all matters of future governance.

The key to knowing which buttons to press during diplomatic negotiations can be tremendously difficult to ascertain. However, when two rivals war with the another for a lengthy number of years, one begins to know thy enemy as well as they might a third hand. Hattushil used the familiarity of his enemy to know what was too much and what was not enough. He rightfully gambled that rather than risking a war with Hatta and her knew ally, Babylonia, it was in the Empire of the Nile's best interest to approve what would otherwise be a lesser deal under previous circumstances.

[EGYPT'S VERSION OF PEACE TREATY]

Ancient History - Part 47: A Changing of the Guard

Egypt and Hatta continued to battle along their Syrian borderlands, where one such engagement claimed the life of Muwatallis. Sensing the void in leadership, Ramses II mustered three more armies and began to reinforce the frontlines in preparation for another full-scale invasion from the south. Upon a civil war that erupted between rival leaders in Hattusa, king Hattushil II (III according to some modern historians) emerged. His reign lasted a great many years.

While Egypt managed to plague the Hattic kingdom's forces, Hatta still managed not to lose much ground, and once Hattushill II had fully ascended to the throne, still possessed a sphere of influence that running from northern Syria to the topmost border of Palestine. This fertile area continued to fund the entirety of the Hattic kingdom as its chief source of revenue.

Ruling with a firm hand, Hattushil eliminated the question as to who controlled Syria, and despite their vast forces, the pending Egyptian invasion never arrived, the territorial lines once again respected by the two superpowers of Hatta and Egypt. 

Later, the Kassite king of Babylonia corresponded with Hattushil regarding the migratory shift of the Amorite population fleeing Hittite-occupied Syria into the desert with some even making their way into Babylonia. A man of surprisingly great eloquence, Hattushil II transformed from a fiery war chief to a charming elder statesman, and in a successful exchange managed to curb Babylonia's cautiousness, offer explanation that the movement of peoples was not intentional but rather a side effect of the war. In the end, the Hattic king gained a powerful new alliance in this unforeseen friendship with the superpower of the southeast, Babylonia.

Egypt then followed the footsteps on Babylonia, sealing an agreement of friendship, and a new peace treaty was actualized with Hatta.

Some battles are won not by the sword, but by the pen (or the chisel by what 1300 B.C.'s cuneiform standards would suggest) and Hattushil managed to do what years of blood-soaked violence could not. Simply treating with the rival power of Babylonia was enough to intimidate a peaceful result with Egypt thus demonstrating that while no monarch's rule is infallible, a simple change in leadership followed by immediate action is usually enough to gain the attention of all friend and foe.

[KING MUWATALLIS REMEMBERED upon his death]

Ancient History - Part 46: The Blood Feud Begins

King Murshil's reign exemplified a non-aggression principle with areas outside of his domain that were previously the aim of conquest by Hatta left largely untouched. Whether this was due to an ill-desire of placing his people in the proximity of the growing Assyrian peril or merely a touch of benevolence still remains unclear.

Murshil is estimated to have died roughly around 1300 B.C., upon which his son, Muwatallis, assumed the Hittite throne. Almost immediately, the new king found himself in open-conflict with the Egyptian king, Seti I, whose armies not only encroached upon Hattic territory, but violently clashed with that of his own. As Egypt pushed with northward marches, Hatta responded in southward counter-marches culminating in bloody skirmishes. The days of being honor-bound to a treaty forged by their forebears soon lay buried in the past.

Warbound enemies once again, in the eighth year of Egyptian-Hittite armed conflict, Seti I died and before the throne had time to even pass to his successor, the Hattic forces successfully broke through, assuming the recently deceased pharoah's rich provinces, in a deadly path through Egypt's dominion. The death of a monarch is an ill-omen, and typically signals enemy forces with a ripe opportunity to attack a weakened nation's heart.

However, once the Egyptian throne officially passed onto Ramses II, the landscape would change. Five years later, the infamous Battle of Kadesh took place (a topic deserving of an in-depth analysis of its own post(s) potentially at a later date) where both embittered overlords of Syria clashed in what has been cemented as a storybook highlight of Egypt's proud history. Fragments exist from both the Egyptian and Hittite perspective on how the events of that fateful day unfolded.

Kadesh was a Hattic controlled city and Ramses II set out to overtake it. The core armed strengths of both superpowers' militaries were bound to face-off in a deadly culmination at this battle site and various ploys and intrigues took place prior to, during, and after the battle itself. 

In the end, despite proclaiming courage and victory, Ramses II and his army's attack on Kadesh (Qadesh) was repelled, quickly pivoting to withdraw to Palestine. There were many close encounters for the pharaoh on the battlefield that nearly sent him to an early crypt, who insisted that he, along with his elite guard, be placed in a precarious mid-line position in order to inspire his troop amidst the fighting.

While the battle-hungry Egyptian leader technically lost, the resulting aftermath had the king of Egypt declared the victor, and this is a profound example of how the presentation of information can manipulate a people's attitude and favor when efforts are made to obscure detection of the deceit. Ramses II's reign would continue many more years, some still in conflict with the Hittites, and yet that loss is still touted as a victory in some circles of Egypt's cultural heritage even to our present day. 

[KING RAMSES II, as depicted in battle]

Ancient History - Part 45: The Syrian Principalities

The Hand of Nergal, a deadly plague, engulfed the lands of the Hittites, and by 1360 B.C. king Shubbiluliuma had fallen ill and died. His firstborn son and heir, Arnuwandash, too, succumbed and passed, thus the kingship was left to Murshil, Shubbiluliuma's second son and sole remaining male heir. Murshil's constitution prevailed and he soon ascended to the throne.

The first decade of Murshil's reign focused primarily on visits throughout Syria and engagements with local matters of state. There are several references etched upon cuneiform, recovered from Bogazkale, detailing the princes of Syria treating with the new king. Carchemish (Karkemish) appeared to be the most favorable amongst his subjects, though Aleppo (Alep) proudly reminded its citizens of their friendship with the ruler of Hatta.

Securing warm relations with his freshly conquered subjects was a matter of deep importance to Murshil, though in the case of Kissuwadna, vast effort was required. Shubbiluliuma severely chastened the prince and his people, but agreed to allow the city its autonomy if an alliance was drawn that Hatta's allies and enemies would be mirrored by Kissuwadna. After much deliberation, assurances were made and the city's loyalty and its alliance to Hatta remained intact with this younger king.

Following their betrayal, the Harri had scattered to the winds, relocating to various Syrian cities, and the wiser princes promised that should Murshil require reinforcements in future-wars, the Harri populace would be the first lines of enlistment. Murshil retained the friendship of Syria by agreeing to abolish the frontier fortifications that separated the border-states, especially now that his father's campaign against them had ended.

Lastly, outside of Syria and Hattic territory, Murshil adopted his late-father's stance toward the Mitanni. He understood the value placed on their continual existence as a buffer-state between Hatta and Assyria. As Assyrian power grew and threatened all that touched its ever expanding borders, an attack on the Mitanni would act as an alarm system, signaling danger to the greater Hittite state. Thusly, Murshil warranted that the Mitanni people would be permitted freedom to dwell and use the Tigris and the riverlands around it as their own.

A back door is a security flaw designed to directly admit the safe passage to the creator and by maintaining an ally with the Mitanni, it was a strategy that meant that the Hattic king could theoretically move an army through Hanigalbat lands to strike at a growing enemy, should the need arise, particularly, an Assyrian enemy.

[MURSHIL'S PRAYER TO THE GODS TO END THE HAND OF NERGAL]

Ancient History - Part 44: An Empire At Its Peak

Upon the defeat of prince Aki-izzi's league of Semitic and Harri rebels, Shubbiluliuma next turned his conquest toward central Syria, occupied and controlled by the Amorites. Much like northern Syria had Aleppo as its crown jewel, central Syria bore Kadesh, the most prestigious power center of the region, and the Hattic king reasoned that should it fall, the surrounding areas would be quick to follow. A theory that proved correct.

With the success of his Campaign of Syria thus far and central Syria fallen, Shubbiluliuma knew that there were greater riches extending beyond Syria, whose resources were quite matched in wealth and would see grand results in the eventual trade from it that would follow the war. The most fertile lands that he eyed with a hunger, lay southward, the lands of Aziru (Lebanon) and Palestine, specifically.

Syria, Aziru, and Palestine are collectively known as the Fertile Crescent, an area desired throughout history by many competing powerful kingdoms.

According to the Amarna letters, Shubbiluliuma's forces overwhelmed and defeated the remaining Amorite regions of Syria with ease, but once it came time to annex Aziru, were met by a fiercely unexpected resistance. Be it city-street or countryside, the defenders, though few, simply would not surrender. Despite his heightened interest in conquering the former Egyptian-satellite nations, upon Aziru's eventual submission (and compliance to a heavy monthly tribute that would lessen over time), the Hattic king ended his conquest here.

In the aftermath of the Hittite Empire's violent expansion, two empires now encroached upon the other. Hatta and Egypt. This was a most sensitive political situation and the first instance in a span of many years when two superpowers of the Near East directly bordered the other in such a confrontational manner.

The Hattic king treated with the Egyptian Pharoah and the battlefield changed from a clash of swords to a conversational war of words. Perhaps heated at first, in the end, Shubbiluliuma and Amenhotep III signed a peace treaty. Hatta would retain control over Aziru whilst Egypt would retain control over Palestine, and neither empire would take arms against the other, as far as both monarchs ruled.

And while all agreements prove temporary over time, neither side challenged the limit of the treaty, with much to gain from mutual obeyance. The Hittite forces bore wartime exhaustion and the Egyptian empire was in a state of rapid decline which extended to the waning size and scope of their once mighty military. For a lengthy period, the security measures were respected by both nations, peace terms held intact.

[LETTER BETWEEN EGYPT AND AZIRU]

Ancient History - Part 43: The Last Redoubts

[SYRIA=YELLOW: THE LANDS OF SHUBBILULILUMI'S CONQUEST]

As Shubbiluliuma asserted his dominance over northern Syria, the remaining of independent regions fought tooth-and-nail in defiance:

• Shaizar and Rukhizzi: Twin settlement communities of towns and common folk. There was little in the way of military activity here, but the lands were no less rich, and the Hattic army took them with ease to supply the major war efforts of the much more defensible regions that lay south.
• Abina: A small province full of Mitanni loyalists, thought to be located on the eastern border of Syria. After a crushing engagement in the field, Abina narrowly avoided a Hattic raid, sending messengers to greet their would-be invaders, signaling a willingness in shifting allegiance. 
• Qatna: A Semitic state, harboring a people who despite small numbers, may have proven themselves the most heavily resistant challenge. Rather than relinquish liberty for the call of safety, the prince, Aki-izzi, openly maintained independence, at one point even calling upon Egypt's Pharoah, Amenhotep IV, for support. (Predictably, such pleas were ignored and prince Aki-izzi's people waited for a Hattic attack that never arrived. Shubbiluliuma instead left Qatna to be taken lastly, intending to appeal to the prince and his people's surrender only after the entirety of its neighboring region had been conquered)
• Kinza: A populous state worth noting that whilst successfully repelling invaders, switched sides none too long thereafter. The ruling prince, Shutatarra, and his refusal to submit to Hittite authority was then ousted by his son, Aitakkama, and his new regime. In an interesting development, Aitakkama of Kinza became a close friend and ally to Shubbiluliuma, and was instrumental in carrying out his new king's will as the growing Hittite Empire's leading agent.
• Aleppo: The king of the Hittites amassed the bulk of his forces in the Kowaik basin where he subjected the grandest city of Syria to a large-scale siege, clashing against Aleppo's defenders within the city's walls, well-armed Mitanni legions. Upon victory, Shubbiluliuma installed one of his own sons to the city's seat, to establish order whilst ruling in his name.

Once Syria had wholly fallen, Shubbiluliuma turned back to Qatna. However, his desire to appeal to prince Aki-izzi with reason was met with a disastrous discovery: 

The prince had secretly engaged in a successful conspiracy in spurring a fire within the ancestral rivals of Hatta, the Harri people, to defect, stoking a revolt within the Hittite army. Perhaps a less sane ruler might have reacted emotionally, but recognizing an opportunity, Shubbiluliuma enlisted his new ally, Aitakkama, and his forces to prove themselves, who defeated the prince and his assortment of local chiefs and traitors in battle, allowing the last redoubt, Qatna, to be annexed.

Despite the interference and setbacks that occurred, Shubbiluliuma's lengthy Campaign of Syria was a profound success.

[ALEPPO CITADEL - THE SITE WHERE MITANNI DEFENDERS WERE OVERTAKEN BY HATTIC FORCES]